Aesthetic Labour in Airline Companies: A Historical Overview of Female Flight Attendants.
Author: Anabel Knigge
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Abstract: Research indicates that there is a clear gender segregation within the tourism industry. Women in the tourism sector contribute a large number of elementary occupations, consisting of 71% of all waiting staff in comparison to 11% which occupy managerial positions (People 1st, 2017). Within the US airline sector, 79% of all flight attendants are female, contrastingly, women only comprise of 7% of all pilots (Women in Aviation, 2019). This paper thus outlines the history of female flight attendants and their evolving aesthetic labour.
Key Words: Aesthetic Labour, Flight Attendants, Gender, History, Regulations and Requirements
Women were not considered for the role of flight attendant until 1930 when an aspiring pilot and registered nurse persuaded Boeing Airlines of the potential benefits of registered nurses in the cabin service (Barry, 2007). In a time when women’s societal responsibilities consisted of maintaining a happy home, the concept of females working in the aviation industry did not resonate with airline managers. It was thus argued that female flight attendants would generate potential publicity and value in creating ‘neater and nicer methods of serving food and looking out for the passengers’ welfare’ (Barry, 2007). The perceived emotional labour, presumed innate to women, inspired a monumental shift in the perceptions of working women in the 1930s. However, women were only employed into the role under the condition that they would also be registered nurses. This was in part because onboard nurses would improve the safety of flying in case of emergencies, but also because it was assumed that nurses would be more sensible and well mannered in the company of men, compared to average girl.
An airline advertisement published in 1966 specifically required stewardesses to be “high school graduates, single and 20 years of age. Airlines heavily relied on the aesthetics labour of flight attendants to appeal to customers and create affective interactions due to their perceived ‘good looks’ (Warhurst and Nickson, 2009). Professionalism was replaced by the marketing of appearance resulting in in an increasing reliance on aesthetic labour. Capitalisation of the aesthetic labour of flight attendants peaked in the 1960s and 1970s with obligatory uniforms consisting of tight miniskirts and hot pants, airline advertisement featured obvious sexual innuendos such as; ‘Does your wife know your flying with us?’ ‘How do you like your stewardesses?’ and ‘I’m going to fly you like you’ve never been flown before. This distinctly portrayed airlines strong focus on the appearance of flight attendants, making them objects of sexual interest for their customers which increased the potential risk of sexual harassment and undermined the professional roles and responsibilities that were associated with the job.
The increasing focus and demand on the sexuality of flight attendants in the 1970s initiated the Stewardesses for Women’s Rights (SFWR), which argued that sex-orientated airline advertising was deceptive and degrading to stewardesses and other woman but also potentially dangers. SFWR influenced other stewardesses to be more active within their own union warranting and largely contributed to the change in stewardess regulations worldwide (SNAC, 2019). After countless complaints and lawsuits, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) and courts illegalised marriage, pregnancy and age requirements and average occupational tenure increased from 15 months in 1965 to 6 years in 1975 (SNAC, 2019).
Airlines today have more lenient requirements in comparison to the early ages of flight attendants, however requirements differ between budget and premium airlines. Despite this, uniform and make up regulations have not undertaken any major improvements or change. Considering the advancement of society and the increasing equality of women and feminism, the airline uniforms for flight attendants are appalling. In a job role which requires a large amount of time walking and, on your feet, heels are unpractical and unnecessary. Furthermore, trousers as a uniform option for women were not introduced until 2004 and even still some airlines only supplied women with trousers if they were part of a long-haul only team.
Virgin Atlantic airlines recently discarded their mandatory makeup requirement for female flight attendants and will also supply trousers to all staff. Virgin Atlantic’s drastic change comes three years after flight attendants for British Airways fought for a change in regulations after a two-year dispute demonstrated that 87% of female flight attendants desired the option of wearing trousers for warmth and protection (The Guardian, 2016). This demonstrates how deeply aesthetic labour is integrated into the aviation industry. Many organisations within the tourism sector require employees to dress respectfully and professionally, both of which can be attained through trousers. The reluctance of airlines in providing trousers to female staff can be interpreted as a remaining desire to portray the femininity and sexual nature of women. Although, a growing number of airlines are amending their uniform regulations as a result of British Airways and Virgin Atlantic, there are a number of airlines, such as Etihad, which have recently prohibited trousers as part of their uniform.
Overall, aesthetic labour is an integral aspect of the tourism industry, particularly with customer orientated positions. The tourism industry considers employees a part of their brand image and as such they must equip a professional appearance. However, in female dominant roles, industries often exploit the appearance of their employees to attract customers resulting in aesthetic labour. Aesthetic labour is highly prominent with the aviation industry which is widely known for its history of attractive flight attendants and their requirements.
References:
Barry, M.K. (2007) Femininity in Flight: A History of Flight Attendants. Durham and London: Duke University Press.
The Guardian (2016) Female British Airways Cabin Crew Win The Right to Wear Trousers. From, https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/feb/05/female-british-airways-cabin-crew-win-the-right-to-wear-trousers [accessed 19 May 2019].
Warhurst, C., and Nickson, D. (2009) ‘Who’s Got the Look?’ Emotional, Aesthetic and Sexualized Labour in Interactive Services. Gender, Work and Organization. 16(3) 385-404.
Key Words: Aesthetic Labour, Flight Attendants, Gender, History, Regulations and Requirements
Women were not considered for the role of flight attendant until 1930 when an aspiring pilot and registered nurse persuaded Boeing Airlines of the potential benefits of registered nurses in the cabin service (Barry, 2007). In a time when women’s societal responsibilities consisted of maintaining a happy home, the concept of females working in the aviation industry did not resonate with airline managers. It was thus argued that female flight attendants would generate potential publicity and value in creating ‘neater and nicer methods of serving food and looking out for the passengers’ welfare’ (Barry, 2007). The perceived emotional labour, presumed innate to women, inspired a monumental shift in the perceptions of working women in the 1930s. However, women were only employed into the role under the condition that they would also be registered nurses. This was in part because onboard nurses would improve the safety of flying in case of emergencies, but also because it was assumed that nurses would be more sensible and well mannered in the company of men, compared to average girl.
An airline advertisement published in 1966 specifically required stewardesses to be “high school graduates, single and 20 years of age. Airlines heavily relied on the aesthetics labour of flight attendants to appeal to customers and create affective interactions due to their perceived ‘good looks’ (Warhurst and Nickson, 2009). Professionalism was replaced by the marketing of appearance resulting in in an increasing reliance on aesthetic labour. Capitalisation of the aesthetic labour of flight attendants peaked in the 1960s and 1970s with obligatory uniforms consisting of tight miniskirts and hot pants, airline advertisement featured obvious sexual innuendos such as; ‘Does your wife know your flying with us?’ ‘How do you like your stewardesses?’ and ‘I’m going to fly you like you’ve never been flown before. This distinctly portrayed airlines strong focus on the appearance of flight attendants, making them objects of sexual interest for their customers which increased the potential risk of sexual harassment and undermined the professional roles and responsibilities that were associated with the job.
The increasing focus and demand on the sexuality of flight attendants in the 1970s initiated the Stewardesses for Women’s Rights (SFWR), which argued that sex-orientated airline advertising was deceptive and degrading to stewardesses and other woman but also potentially dangers. SFWR influenced other stewardesses to be more active within their own union warranting and largely contributed to the change in stewardess regulations worldwide (SNAC, 2019). After countless complaints and lawsuits, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) and courts illegalised marriage, pregnancy and age requirements and average occupational tenure increased from 15 months in 1965 to 6 years in 1975 (SNAC, 2019).
Airlines today have more lenient requirements in comparison to the early ages of flight attendants, however requirements differ between budget and premium airlines. Despite this, uniform and make up regulations have not undertaken any major improvements or change. Considering the advancement of society and the increasing equality of women and feminism, the airline uniforms for flight attendants are appalling. In a job role which requires a large amount of time walking and, on your feet, heels are unpractical and unnecessary. Furthermore, trousers as a uniform option for women were not introduced until 2004 and even still some airlines only supplied women with trousers if they were part of a long-haul only team.
Virgin Atlantic airlines recently discarded their mandatory makeup requirement for female flight attendants and will also supply trousers to all staff. Virgin Atlantic’s drastic change comes three years after flight attendants for British Airways fought for a change in regulations after a two-year dispute demonstrated that 87% of female flight attendants desired the option of wearing trousers for warmth and protection (The Guardian, 2016). This demonstrates how deeply aesthetic labour is integrated into the aviation industry. Many organisations within the tourism sector require employees to dress respectfully and professionally, both of which can be attained through trousers. The reluctance of airlines in providing trousers to female staff can be interpreted as a remaining desire to portray the femininity and sexual nature of women. Although, a growing number of airlines are amending their uniform regulations as a result of British Airways and Virgin Atlantic, there are a number of airlines, such as Etihad, which have recently prohibited trousers as part of their uniform.
Overall, aesthetic labour is an integral aspect of the tourism industry, particularly with customer orientated positions. The tourism industry considers employees a part of their brand image and as such they must equip a professional appearance. However, in female dominant roles, industries often exploit the appearance of their employees to attract customers resulting in aesthetic labour. Aesthetic labour is highly prominent with the aviation industry which is widely known for its history of attractive flight attendants and their requirements.
References:
Barry, M.K. (2007) Femininity in Flight: A History of Flight Attendants. Durham and London: Duke University Press.
The Guardian (2016) Female British Airways Cabin Crew Win The Right to Wear Trousers. From, https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/feb/05/female-british-airways-cabin-crew-win-the-right-to-wear-trousers [accessed 19 May 2019].
Warhurst, C., and Nickson, D. (2009) ‘Who’s Got the Look?’ Emotional, Aesthetic and Sexualized Labour in Interactive Services. Gender, Work and Organization. 16(3) 385-404.