Western women travelling in conservative countries - the problem of the sexed body
Author: Maija Keturi
3 Commentries
Western women travelling in conservative countries - the problem of the sexed body
Females face distinctive risks in the public that males don't. Criminals, intruders, stalkers, kidnappers and rapists target women for their physical vulnerability and disinterest to fight back. The patriarchal system of fear, social control and judgement about what is 'appropriate' behaviour for a woman keeps governing women's use of public space (Wilson and Little, 2008). Women are discouraged to do things such as hitchhike, sit alone in a train carriage and walk alone on dark streets in the fear of male violence, which limits their freedom, even if for good reasons.
The victimhood of a woman and the preciousness of her sexed body make close ones wanting to protect her, which is why women travelling can still be seen inappropriate to a certain extent even in the white western context (Wilson and Little, 2008). Despite all this, Western women are increasingly travelling abroad without male accompanies (Wilson and Little, 2008). Women now represent two thirds of British solo leisure travellers (Chiang and Jogaratnam, 2006).
During the last decades Western woman tourist has become an object of attention (Hottola, 2002). The study of Jordan and Aitchison (2008) found that many women on holidays get affected by 'sexual terrorism', 'a system by which males frighten, control and dominate females'. Even though Western women's Otherness, whiteness, wealth and high social status work as authority against local harassers in non-Western countries, lack of privacy and unwanted sexual attention are some of the main problems women are facing on their holidays (Hottola, 2002).
Some Western women engage in "romantic adventures" on their holidays, but earlier studies have found out that women rather search for cultural and educational experiences (Chiang and Jogaratnam, 2006). The study of Chiang and Jagaratnam (2006) revealed that American women travelled mainly for experiencing different cultures and ways of life, whereas romantic encounters and doing nothing were the least important holiday motivators.
As human bodies are sexed, observing a human body objectively is itself a sensual pleasure, particularly for males (Hottola, 2002). Women constantly find themselves being observed by the masculine gaze, confirmed by whistles, comments or actual physical assault of unknown men (Wilson and Little, 2008). Unaware how 'exposed' their behaviour makes some women feel, these men might actually even think women in general regard their behaviour fun.
Western women who travel to more conservative countries find themselves being more observed than back home. Sexual harassment in conservative countries can be regarded as patriarchal control and abuse of power (Hottola, 2002). What is concerning is that women tend to blame themselves when something unfavourable happens to them; it is herself that is in the wrong place at a wrong time, not the abuser (Wilson and Little, 2008).
Tourists and hosts often create artificial relationships, in which both parties end up creating a caricature, often similar to stereotypes, of each other (Hottola, 2002). In more conservative countries the stereotype of sex-hungry Western women is constantly affirmed by the media, especially by American entertainment. The physical limit of contact that applies to the local men when in contact with local women may not apply to Caucasian female tourists (Wilson and Little, 2008). Even though Western women seldom do something sexually illegal, they are seen to encourage illegal action towards the physical body of a woman by their choice of clothing and other commonly Western behaviour.
The views of the local women should be considered, as the sexual male behaviour towards the tourists affects them too. Traditionally men in some eastern cultures have been allowed to have extra-marital relationships for fulfilling their sexual desires (Hottola, 2002), a norm women have accepted time before Western female travellers started holidaying in the region. Problems have arisen for example in Kerala, where the increasing number of tourists has lifted the number of locals with HIV to third in the country (Hottola, 2002).
Tourism further has the potential to create unwanted social and economical impacts such as changes in value systems, individual behaviours, family relationships, collective lifestyles, traditional ceremonies and more (Maoz, 2006).The situation gets worse when the hosts consider the economic impact of tourists and thus leave anything against them unmentioned (Maoz, 2006), in this case for example their bold clothing.
In sum Western women face limited freedom back in the Western world. On holidays in more conservative countries the sexual harassment women experience from men can be a challenge for their enjoyment. The objectifying male gaze can further be encouraged by women responding to it positively. Sexually liberal female tourists can further cause problems for the family of the local woman who is taught to loyally stand by her husband. Nevertheless the natural sexual drive or violence of a man should not continue being a reason to limit female freedom in any place.
Briavel, H. (1993) Women Travelers at Fins de Siecles. Focus, 43 (4) pp. 11-14
Butler, K. L. (1994) Independence for Western Women Through Tourism. Tourism Management, 13 (-) pp.226-234
Chiang, C.-Y. and Jogaratnam, G. (2006) Why do women travel solo for purposes of leisure? Journal of Vacation Marketing, 12 (1) pp. 59-70
Dunkel, T. M, Davidson, D. and Qurashi, S. (2010) Body Satisfaction and Pressure to be Thin in Younger and Older Muslim and Non-Muslim Women: The Role of Western and Non-Western Dress Preferences. Body Image, 7 (1) pp.56-65
Hottola, P. (2002) Amoral and Available? Western Women Travellers in South Asia. Published by the University of Tampere, Tampere
Jordan, F. and Aitchison, C. (2008) Tourism and the Sexualisation of the Gaze: Solo Female Tourists' Experiences of Gendered Power, Surveillance and Embodiment. Leisure Studies, 27 (3) pp.329-349
Mabro, J. (1991) Veiled Half-Truths: Western Travellers' Perceptions of Middle Eatern Women. London: IB Tauris
Maoz, D. (2006) The Mutual Gaze. Annals of Tourism Research, 33 (1) pp.221-239
Morgan, N. J. and Pritchard, A. (2000) Privileging the Male Gaze. Annals of Tourism Research, 27 (4) pp. 884-905
Sreekumar, S. (2007) The Land of 'Gender Paradox'? Getting Past the Commonsense of Contemporary Kerala. Inter-Asia Cultural Studies, 8 (1) pp.34-54
Wilson, E. and Little, D. E. (2008) The Solo Female Travel Experience: Exploring the 'Geography of Women's Fear'. Current Issues in Tourism, 11 (1) pp.167-186
Females face distinctive risks in the public that males don't. Criminals, intruders, stalkers, kidnappers and rapists target women for their physical vulnerability and disinterest to fight back. The patriarchal system of fear, social control and judgement about what is 'appropriate' behaviour for a woman keeps governing women's use of public space (Wilson and Little, 2008). Women are discouraged to do things such as hitchhike, sit alone in a train carriage and walk alone on dark streets in the fear of male violence, which limits their freedom, even if for good reasons.
The victimhood of a woman and the preciousness of her sexed body make close ones wanting to protect her, which is why women travelling can still be seen inappropriate to a certain extent even in the white western context (Wilson and Little, 2008). Despite all this, Western women are increasingly travelling abroad without male accompanies (Wilson and Little, 2008). Women now represent two thirds of British solo leisure travellers (Chiang and Jogaratnam, 2006).
During the last decades Western woman tourist has become an object of attention (Hottola, 2002). The study of Jordan and Aitchison (2008) found that many women on holidays get affected by 'sexual terrorism', 'a system by which males frighten, control and dominate females'. Even though Western women's Otherness, whiteness, wealth and high social status work as authority against local harassers in non-Western countries, lack of privacy and unwanted sexual attention are some of the main problems women are facing on their holidays (Hottola, 2002).
Some Western women engage in "romantic adventures" on their holidays, but earlier studies have found out that women rather search for cultural and educational experiences (Chiang and Jogaratnam, 2006). The study of Chiang and Jagaratnam (2006) revealed that American women travelled mainly for experiencing different cultures and ways of life, whereas romantic encounters and doing nothing were the least important holiday motivators.
As human bodies are sexed, observing a human body objectively is itself a sensual pleasure, particularly for males (Hottola, 2002). Women constantly find themselves being observed by the masculine gaze, confirmed by whistles, comments or actual physical assault of unknown men (Wilson and Little, 2008). Unaware how 'exposed' their behaviour makes some women feel, these men might actually even think women in general regard their behaviour fun.
Western women who travel to more conservative countries find themselves being more observed than back home. Sexual harassment in conservative countries can be regarded as patriarchal control and abuse of power (Hottola, 2002). What is concerning is that women tend to blame themselves when something unfavourable happens to them; it is herself that is in the wrong place at a wrong time, not the abuser (Wilson and Little, 2008).
Tourists and hosts often create artificial relationships, in which both parties end up creating a caricature, often similar to stereotypes, of each other (Hottola, 2002). In more conservative countries the stereotype of sex-hungry Western women is constantly affirmed by the media, especially by American entertainment. The physical limit of contact that applies to the local men when in contact with local women may not apply to Caucasian female tourists (Wilson and Little, 2008). Even though Western women seldom do something sexually illegal, they are seen to encourage illegal action towards the physical body of a woman by their choice of clothing and other commonly Western behaviour.
The views of the local women should be considered, as the sexual male behaviour towards the tourists affects them too. Traditionally men in some eastern cultures have been allowed to have extra-marital relationships for fulfilling their sexual desires (Hottola, 2002), a norm women have accepted time before Western female travellers started holidaying in the region. Problems have arisen for example in Kerala, where the increasing number of tourists has lifted the number of locals with HIV to third in the country (Hottola, 2002).
Tourism further has the potential to create unwanted social and economical impacts such as changes in value systems, individual behaviours, family relationships, collective lifestyles, traditional ceremonies and more (Maoz, 2006).The situation gets worse when the hosts consider the economic impact of tourists and thus leave anything against them unmentioned (Maoz, 2006), in this case for example their bold clothing.
In sum Western women face limited freedom back in the Western world. On holidays in more conservative countries the sexual harassment women experience from men can be a challenge for their enjoyment. The objectifying male gaze can further be encouraged by women responding to it positively. Sexually liberal female tourists can further cause problems for the family of the local woman who is taught to loyally stand by her husband. Nevertheless the natural sexual drive or violence of a man should not continue being a reason to limit female freedom in any place.
Briavel, H. (1993) Women Travelers at Fins de Siecles. Focus, 43 (4) pp. 11-14
Butler, K. L. (1994) Independence for Western Women Through Tourism. Tourism Management, 13 (-) pp.226-234
Chiang, C.-Y. and Jogaratnam, G. (2006) Why do women travel solo for purposes of leisure? Journal of Vacation Marketing, 12 (1) pp. 59-70
Dunkel, T. M, Davidson, D. and Qurashi, S. (2010) Body Satisfaction and Pressure to be Thin in Younger and Older Muslim and Non-Muslim Women: The Role of Western and Non-Western Dress Preferences. Body Image, 7 (1) pp.56-65
Hottola, P. (2002) Amoral and Available? Western Women Travellers in South Asia. Published by the University of Tampere, Tampere
Jordan, F. and Aitchison, C. (2008) Tourism and the Sexualisation of the Gaze: Solo Female Tourists' Experiences of Gendered Power, Surveillance and Embodiment. Leisure Studies, 27 (3) pp.329-349
Mabro, J. (1991) Veiled Half-Truths: Western Travellers' Perceptions of Middle Eatern Women. London: IB Tauris
Maoz, D. (2006) The Mutual Gaze. Annals of Tourism Research, 33 (1) pp.221-239
Morgan, N. J. and Pritchard, A. (2000) Privileging the Male Gaze. Annals of Tourism Research, 27 (4) pp. 884-905
Sreekumar, S. (2007) The Land of 'Gender Paradox'? Getting Past the Commonsense of Contemporary Kerala. Inter-Asia Cultural Studies, 8 (1) pp.34-54
Wilson, E. and Little, D. E. (2008) The Solo Female Travel Experience: Exploring the 'Geography of Women's Fear'. Current Issues in Tourism, 11 (1) pp.167-186